Foreword
This website is dedicated to a scientific search for truth concerning the Mysteries of Cosmology and Creation. The website includes a Forum in which you can personally contribute to this search. I will present concepts that drastically conflict with the prevailing wisdom proclaimed by astrophysicists. Do not be afraid of expressing your own thoughts. Though they might be naïve, they cannot be more confused than the science-fiction picture of our universe that has been portrayed for many years by scientists in television and literature. Adrian Bjornson, May 2009
Scientific Philosophy of Website
The Chaos of Modern Astronomy
While immersed in a sea of astronomical data, modern astronomy is sinking into a mythological confusion that is comparable to the days of Galileo. Astronomers are certain that our universe was created as a singularity of infinite density and infinitesimal size, which exploded in a Big Bang 13.7 billion years ago. They claim to have proven that our universe contains a multitude of Black Holes, which are massive stars that have collapsed into singularities of infinitesimal size. A Black Hole is theoretically surrounded by an event horizon sphere from which light cannot escape, and all of the matter of the Black Hole is compressed into an infinitely dense singularity at the center of this sphere. Astronomers believe they have proven that our universe is filled with non-physical Dark Energy and Dark Matter, which contradict known physical laws.
Astronomers use the Einstein General theory of Relativity as the scientific basis for these science-fiction concepts. However, Einstein absolutely rejected Big Bang and Black Hole singularities throughout his lifetime. He insisted that observational facts must be the foundation of any physical theory, including his General theory of Relativity. His scientific philosophy was absolutely opposed to non-physical concepts like Black Holes and Dark Energy. Scientists proclaiming this modern picture of the universe insist that they are following in Einstein’s footsteps, but they are actually attacking the scientific principles on which his life was based.
Before we become absorbed in the details of this controversy, let us reflect on the mystery of the heavens. I never cease to be excited when I view the sky on a clear, moonless night at a location far from city lights. Countless stars shine down on me with wondrous glory. To me the most moving sight is that pale white pathway across the sky called the Milky Way, and I am thrilled to consider what it represents. I am looking at billions and billions of distant stars that form our Milky Way galaxy. Our galaxy is similar to the Whirlpool galaxy (35 million light years away) shown in the above figure. Our Milky Way galaxy has the shape of a disk, and the Milky Way is our edge-on view of our galaxy from inside this disk.
Our Milky Way galaxy contains 100 billion stars, and is so vast that light takes 100 thousand years to travel across it. Our earth is revolving around our sun, which is a star located within a spiral arm two-thirds of the distance from the galaxy center to the circumference. Our Milky Way galaxy is rotating, and takes 250 million years to complete one revolution. But our galaxy is not alone. There are at least 10 billion, and maybe 100 billion, galaxies of comparable size that comprise our universe. The universe is so enormous it defies comprehension.
Astronomers can measure the velocity of a star relative to the earth by observing the spectrum of its light. Each element on the surface of a star emits a unique pattern of spectral lines that occur at particular wavelengths. In the spectrum of the light received from a star, these spectral lines are shifted by an amount approximately proportional to the radial velocity of the star. If the star is approaching us, the lines are shifted toward the blue, and if the star is receding, the lines are shifted toward the red. By measuring this spectral shift, astronomers can accurately measure the relative velocity of a star in the radial direction.
In 1929, astronomer Edwin Hubble made the astounding discovery that our universe is expanding. Galaxies are moving away from us at velocities proportional to distance, at a rate now known to be about 20 km/sec per million light years of galaxy distance. The Hubble expansion of the universe has led most astronomers to conclude that our universe must have originally been compressed into an extremely dense mass, which exploded with a Big Bang billions of years ago, and has been expanding ever since.
By applying Einstein’s General Theory of Relativity, astrophysicists have concluded that the Big Bang must have occurred 13.7 billion years ago. They claim that at that time our enormous universe, with its tens of billions of galaxies, each containing many tens of billions of stars, was originally compressed into a singularity of nearly infinite density. Most astrophysicists believe that our enormous universe was initially microscopic in size.
This concept of the creation of our universe defies common sense. It would be called ridiculous if it had not been proclaimed so loudly for so many years by scientists having prestigious degrees. Some scientists realize that there is something fundamentally wrong with this concept, but there is no recognized alternative that is consistent with scientific data.
If all of these esteemed scientists are unable to explain how our universe was created, how can we hope to make sense of this issue in our Forum? We have an advantage that the scientific community lacks. They are all under strong economic constraints that force their thinking to fit a particular mold. We have the freedom to think for ourselves, and the democracy of our thinking can be powerful.
To explore this issue, you must understand the principles of Einstein’s General theory of Relativity. That is impossible, you may think. Everyone knows that the Einstein theory is so complicated that only a genius can understand it. My reply is, “Nonsense!” Although the tensor calculations of General Relativity are very complicated, the principles underlying those calculations can be easily understood. Even those who are weak in mathematics should readily comprehend the physical concepts of this theory.
Cause of the Hubble Expansion
To explain the Hubble expansion of the universe, cosmologists have calculated in minute detail how the universe expansion must have progressed since the instant of the Big Bang, but they have not proposed any cause for the Hubble expansion, or any cause for the initial Big Bang event. Outside of this website, no other cosmology theory that is even remotely consistent with physical evidence has provided a viable answer for the cause of the Hubble expansion of the universe.
This website provides the following direct answer to this enigma: The Hubble expansion of the universe is a natural relativistic process that is caused by the gravitational effect of matter throughout the universe.
“How can this be?” you ask. “How can the force of gravity, which always causes particles of matter to attract one another, make the universe expand?”
The answer is that gravity is not a force. As Einstein explained, gravity is a curvature of space (or, more precisely, a curvature of four-dimensional space-time). Newton’s gravitational theory (which treats gravity as a force) holds to very high accuracy within our solar system. However, Einstein showed with his General theory of Relativity that Newton’s theory is an approximation. Even within the weak gravitational field of our solar system, there are small but measurable errors in the Newtonian theory that were predicted by the Einstein theory. When we study the universe on a cosmological scale, the relativistic effects of gravity are very much greater, and to achieve meaningful answers we must consider gravity to be a curvature of space. We can no longer apply the Newtonian approximation that gravity is an attractive force.
Why does the earth travel in a curved orbit around the sun? Newton’s theory states that a body moves at constant velocity in a straight line unless a force is applied to it. The attractive force of the sun’s gravity pulls the earth away from the normal straight-line trajectory, and makes the earth follow a curved path around the sun. However, according to Einstein’s General theory of Relativity, gravitational force does not exist. Instead, the gravitational field of the sun curves the space around it, and the earth travels within this curved space along a geodesic path, which is equivalent to a straight line in flat Euclidean space. A straight line is the shortest distance between two points in flat Euclidean space, and a geodesic is the shortest distance between two points in curved space.
To determine the paths of celestial bodies accurately we must solve the geodesic equation. When we apply the principles of General Relativity properly to a simple universe model that assumes a constant average density of matter extending to infinity, the geodesic equation tells us that the universe must expand, just as Hubble observed.
Scientists have been applying Einstein’s General theory of Relativity to cosmology for nearly a century. Why have they not discovered the Hubble expansion in their analyses? The problem is that they have been applying Einstein’s gravitational field equation, not his actual General theory of Relativity. Let me explain.
The Einstein Gravitational Field
Equation
Einstein presented his basic theory of Relativity in 1905, which was later called his Special theory of Relativity. This was based on two principles: (1) the speed of light is always exactly the same to every observer, regardless of the observer’s velocity, and (2) time and spatial measurements must be combined into a four-dimensional space-time specification. To any observer, time and space are entirely separate concepts. However, they must be combined to compare measurements made by observers travelling at different velocities, because a time interval between two events experienced by one observer can be seen as a spatial interval to another observer moving at a different velocity. From this basic Relativity theory, Einstein made some profound predictions that have had wide practical application. This includes his famous (E = Mc2) equation, which provided the theoretical foundation for developing the atomic nuclear bomb.
Einstein performed approximate analyses to prove that the speed of light is only constant for observers moving at constant velocity. When acceleration occurs, the speed of light is not exactly constant. Einstein concluded that acceleration and gravity are equivalent, and so a gravitational field must also change the speed of light. These approximate analyses proved to Einstein that his basic Relativity theory was a Special case, and that he had to generalize his theory to include the effects of acceleration and gravity in order to achieve a complete theory of Relativity. Einstein struggled with this research for 11 years before he published his General theory of Relativity in 1916.
To incorporate the effects of gravity and acceleration in his Relativity theory, Einstein concluded that his four-dimensional space-time specification of reality must operate in curved space, and that gravity and acceleration should produce the curvature of this four-dimensional space. To implement this concept, Einstein used an elaborate and rigorous mathematical theory that applied calculus to curved space, which was published in 1901 by the Italian mathematician Gregorio Ricci, and was based on a mathematical principle published by the German mathematician Bernhard Riemann in 1852. I call this mathematical theory the Ricci-Riemann calculus of curved space.
To apply the Ricci-Riemann calculus of curved space to his Relativity theory, Einstein had to derive a gravitational field equation that would quantitatively specify his theory. He developed the constraints that this equation must satisfy, and struggled for a number of years to deduce an acceptable equation. He tried various approaches that failed. Finally he obtained his official gravitational field equation, which was published in 1916. During solar eclipses in 1920 and 1922, this equation accurately predicted the bending of starlight for stellar images close to the sun, and Einstein became an instant celebrity.
Since then, a number of tests performed within our solar system have further confirmed the accuracy of the Einstein gravitational field equation. On the other hand, the relativistic effects produced by the weak gravitational fields within our solar system are very tiny, and so these tests performed within our solar system say little about the accuracy of the Einstein gravitational field equation in cosmology applications.
It is well known that Einstein did not derive his gravitational field equation rigorously. It was his best guess. Nevertheless, cosmologists have been treating this guess as absolute reality, and have endorsed a multitude of science-fiction concepts that are based solely on the premise that the Einstein gravitational field equation is completely accurate.
In the early 1950’s, Huseyin Yilmaz was performing PhD research at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology when he accidently discovered a rigorous means of deriving a gravitational field equation that satisfies the principles of General Relativity. (His derivation is described by this website in 1,3 The Yilmaz Relativistic Theory of Gravity.) Unfortunately, Einstein died in 1955 before he was able to read the Yilmaz analysis. The original Yilmaz gravitational field equation applied only to the static case, where the gravitational field does not change with time. However, all of the solutions used to verify the Einstein gravitational field equation are also static solutions. The Yilmaz gravitational theory was published in 1958 by the prestigious Physical Review. In 1973, Yilmaz extended his static theory to achieve an elaborate and rigorous generalization that applies to time-varying gravitational fields.
Although the Yilmaz theory is a profound and rigorous refinement of the Einstein theory, which has enormous implications, it has been almost completely ignored by scientists dealing with General Relativity theory, for obvious reasons. Countless scientists have based their scientific careers on extremely complicated calculations using the flawed Einstein gravitational field equation. If the Yilmaz theory were given the recognition it deserves, this enormous research effort based on the Einstein gravitational field equation would become irrelevant.
Application of Yilmaz Theory to
Cosmology
The Yilmaz gravitational theory is a refinement of the Einstein’s General theory of Relativity, which incorporates all of the principles of the Einstein theory except the flawed Einstein gravitational field equation. Therefore, when one applies the Yilmaz theory to cosmology, one is actually implementing the Einstein theory the way Einstein really wanted. The Yilmaz theory does not yield any physically impossible concepts like Black Holes or other singularities, which Einstein absolutely rejected.
The Yilmaz theory can be applied to cosmology by making the following simple postulate: The universe has a constant average density of matter that extends to infinity and does not change with time. The resultant cosmology model that is predicted by the Yilmaz theory has the following characteristics:
(1) Recent data indicate a Hubble expansion rate of about 20 km/sec per million light years of galaxy distance (65 km/sec per mega-parsec). For the gravitational curvature of our universe to produce this Hubble expansion rate, the Yilmaz theory predicts that the universe should have an average mass density equivalent to 9.6 hydrogen atoms per cubic meter. This is highly consistent with recent astronomical measurements, which give average mass densities equivalent to 3.0 to 7.2 hydrogen atoms per cubic meter.
(2) If the universe expanded uniformly to great distances according to the Hubble Law (at 20 km/sec per million light years), galaxy velocity would reach the speed of light at a distance of 15 billion light years, and so the galaxy could not be seen. In contrast, the Yilmaz cosmology model predicts that, even though the universe expands locally about the observer according to the Hubble Law, the expansion departs drastically from the Hubble Law at great distances. At 15 billion light years, the galaxy velocity is 80 percent of the speed of light. At much greater distances, the galaxy velocity gradually approaches the speed of light but never quite reaches it.
(3) The Doppler redshift of the light received from a galaxy depends on the ratio of the apparent galaxy velocity to the apparent speed of light. Since the apparent galaxy velocity approaches the apparent speed of light gradually, the light from galaxies at very great distances is red-shifted to very low frequency, thereby producing strong radiation at microwave frequencies. An analysis using the Yilmaz model predicts Cosmic Microwave Background Radiation (CMBR) having a black body temperature of 4.0 degree Kelvin, which is close to the 2.73 degree Kelvin blackbody temperature measured by the COBE satellite. This predicted cosmic radiation comes from galaxies at a distance of 56 billion light years. (For comparison, the estimates of CMBR based on the Big Bang theory predicted black-body temperatures that varied from 5 to 30 degree Kelvin.)
(4) The apparent speed of light decreases rapidly with distance beyond 10 billion light years, dropping below half at 13 billion light years, and below one percent at 33 billion light years. Therefore, even though the universe expands at nearly the apparent speed of light for distances much greater than 15 billion light years, the actual velocity of expansion becomes vanishingly small. Although the universe expands locally about the observer at a rate of 20 km/sec per million light years of galaxy distance, at very great distances the actual rate of expansion approaches zero. Consequently the over-all size of the universe remains constant, even though the universe expands at the Hubble rate about every observer.
This gives a few of the relativistic cosmological implications of the Yilmaz gravitational theory. Much more detail is presented by this website in document 1,4 Application of Yilmaz Theory to Cosmology. Remember that the Yilmaz theory is a refinement of the Einstein theory, which applies all of the principles of General Relativity except the flawed Einstein gravitational field equation. Consequently, these astounding relativistic predictions concerning cosmology are the direct consequence of the principles that Einstein established in his General theory of Relativity.
The Mystery of Creation
For many years scientists have informed us with absolute certainty that our whole universe was created in an enormous Big Bang explosion about 15 billion years ago. The evidence supporting this conclusion has been based on the validity of the flawed Einstein gravitational field equation, which was Einstein’s best guess for an equation to specify the principles of General Relativity. This website presents sufficient evidence to demolish the Big Bang research, and the science-fiction claims that are associated with the Big Bang explosion.
Many people have been attracted to the Big Bang creation event, which cosmologists claim to have occurred about 15 billion years ago, because it appeared to support the Creation story of the Bible. The Big Bang event definitely did not happen. On the other hand (as I have discussed in my books), the Biblical Story of Creation is highly consistent with processes that actually did occur, about 5 billion years ago, when our sun was created along with our earth.
Our model of cosmology depicts a universe that is infinitely old. (That is why this website is named OldUniverse.com.) To compensate for the universe expansion, diffuse matter must be created continuously at a rate of two hydrogen atoms per year within a cubic kilometer. This highly diffuse matter congregates at various locations into denser and denser regions that eventually grow into new stars and galaxies. In this manner, Creation is continually occurring. As old stars die to form black dwarf and neutron stars, there apparently is a process that converts the mass of these dead stars into diffuse matter throughout space, and this diffuse matter eventually creates new stars and galaxies.
There are many questions concerning Creation that are associated
with this process. One of the goals of this website and my books is to
explore the true scientific evidence associated with Creation, and
separate it from the pseudo-science that is presently strangling the
field of astronomy.
Organization of Website
Contents of Remainder of Website
1 Relativity
3 Books
4 Discussion
5 Addendum
This part of the website is directed to the scientist, and assumes a solid knowledge of calculus. This analysis is supplied to provide scientific support for the material presented elsewhere in this website. Of particular importance is the presentation of the General time-varying Yilmaz theory of Gravity, given in Documents 5,5 and 5,F.
Contact
The author, Adrian Bjornson, can
be reached at the following Email address: addisonpress@aol.com
Acknowledgement of Whirlpool
galaxy
I thank astronomer Dr. William C. Keel of the University of Alabama for his excellent photograph of the M51 Whirlpool Galaxy. This was taken on the 1.1-meter Hall telescope at the Lowell Observatory. This inspiring photograph was graciously supplied several years ago.